Geoffrey Parrinder: Avatar and Incarnation

The Divine in Human Form in the World’s Religions

Oneworld, 1997 (1970)

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Hindu beliefs in avatars, heavenly beings who come down to earth to restore right and destroy wrong, are more than 2000 years old. For the greater part of this history, beliefs in avatars have run parallel to the Christian doctrine of incarnation, the manifestation of God in Jesus. This study looks at the origin and development of these doctrines of avatar and incarnation, not just in Christianity and Hinduism, but also in other religions with comparable elements, such as Buddhism, Jainism and Islam. Geoffrey Parrinder explores the scriptural sources for these doctrines and surveys the commentaries of theologians past and present. His absorbing examination of key issues, such as Christian belief in the uniqueness of Christ versus belief in successive avatars, the relationship between historicity and legend and the humanity – divinity debate, produces a rich and detailed comparison of the variety of beliefs in the earthly manifestation of the deity.

Geoffrey Parrinder is Emeritus Professor of the Comparative Study of Religions at Kings College London. He has travelled and lectured widely, and is the author of many highly successful books on world religions, which have been translated into twelve languages.

“Dr Parrinder is a distinguished contributor to what literature there is on the subject…He provides a much-needed critical survey of a difficult and complex area.”

The Times Literary Supplement

Gunnar Ekelöf

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunnar_Ekel%C3%B6f

This is a poor Wikipedia article. Ekelöf began as an ordinary, wild, young, radical modernist and surrealist, and this early phase was of course quite as much an expression of romanticism as his later development, although in a different version. He was certainly ill at ease with the established upper and middle classes. But Ekelöf’s poetry increasingly expressed the alienation of the artist from the radical, modernist, and rationalist social engineers and ideologues who during his lifetime came to dominate those classes completely.

The quote from Anders Olsson may or may not express a truth about Ekelöf, but perhaps it represents his application of contemporary literary theory rather than any deep, original grasp of Ekelöf’s poetry (I was present when Olsson defended his thesis on Ekelöf at Stockholm University in 1981). The category of “modernist” poetry is often simplistic and misleading, and should perhaps in some respects be questioned.

Much more needs to be said about Ekelöf’s later work; he became in some respects a kind of mystic. His later collections of poems are endlessly fascinating as artefacts. Admittedly, his mysticism is of the distinctly modern, lower romantic, pantheistic, and erotic kind. But it is hard to find mystical poets of not just the last hundred but the last two hundred years who are not, so one has to work from within this predicament, as it were. And in Swedish twentieth-century poetry, Ekelöf is a good place to start.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gunnar-ekelof.jpg

Eckhart Tolle

There are some characteristic and predictable onesidednesses (if I may use that word), superficialities and omissions in Tolle’s understanding and presentation, not least of the New Age, pop-psychological, and politically correct variety. Given his focus on the analysis of time and the spiritual significance of the Now, his seemingly only superficial awareness of the important analyses of time in modern phenomenology is somewhat disappointing from the philosophical perspective. And as with so many writers of books about spirituality in the west today, he fails to refer to and to draw adequately, or at all, on the already long existing, vast legacy of spiritual classics of the various spiritual traditions of the world, in which everything essential is already formulated with unsurpassed mastery. This is of course a typical peculiarity of modern western mind. Nonetheless, he gives the impression of being basically a serious, authentic, and intelligent spiritual teacher.

I add that, defending an alternative modernity which selectively affirms tradition, and not being a traditionalist in the Catholic or even, in every respect, in the Guénonian sense, I do not entirely reject the work of people classified as belonging in the New Age category. It often contains much of obvious truth and value, although it has to be approached with critical discernment.

Not least important about Tolle is simply the fact that he is a spiritual teacher of this kind. That he is serious, and that he not only is in the West but is a Westerner, speaking from within a Western perspective while having in substance assimilated also the teachings of the East. This is a new phenomenon and a new kind of social and cultural role and identity, arisen in the twentieth century. And it is, it seems to me, central to the salvation, or spiritual enlightenment, of the West.

At the same time, it seems this situatedness almost automatically brings with it the mentioned, characteristic New Age weaknesses, the general adaptation to various aspects of romantic liberalism (if it can be thus summarized) and, not least, the constant need to present one’s own teachings in terms of a reinterpretation of the long-dominant religion of the West, Christianity, or of Abrahamism in general, a reinterpretation which is inevitably and rightly seen by Christian theologians as simply wrong. Tolle’s superficialities in this area are obvious.

Most modern Indian teachers, and not just those who came to the West, are guilty of it too; they set a problematic example for the Western ones we now see. It is easy to see why this kind of reinterpretation is inevitable in many cases. But it would be much better if teachers like Tolle tried to minimize it, to focus instead of presenting the Eastern teachings more strictly in accordance with their own traditions alone, and, in their necessary effort of cultural integration, to reflect more carefully on the differences between them and the Abrahamitic religions, citing the latter with more discernment, and drawing instead perhaps more directly on aspects of Western idealistic philosophy and forms of Western esotericism that are more independent of Biblical reinterpretation.

Abrahamism should be seen for what it is, and, indeed, partly appreciated for what it is, on its own level, without being twisted to express always the same truths as Hinduism and Buddhism. Traditionalism, or what I prefer to call soft traditionalism, stands for proper discernment, in contradistinction to facile New Age syncretism.

But perhaps the reinterpretation of Abrahamism, even by way of the characteristic New Age and pop-psychological teachings by means of which the Eastern teachings themselves are at the same time reinterpreted, is for many Westerners a necessary stage in the process of going beyond it. We have perhaps moved so far from the historical meanings of the Bible that few understand the theologians’ objections anyway. Even so, there will still be important cases, and perhaps not exclusively among scholars, where it must be stressed that it is  a matter of a new teaching presented by means of seemingly familiar Biblical terminology and Biblical quotes.

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Photo: Kyle Hoobin

Julius Evola: The Yoga of Power

Tantra, Shakti, and the Sacred Law

Inner Traditions, 1992

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Translated into English for the first time, this book will come as a surprise to those who think of India as a civilization characterized only by contemplation and the quest for nirvana. The author introduces two Hindu movements – Tantrism and Shaktism – both of which emphasize a path of action as well as mastery over secret energies latent in the body. Tracing the influence of these movements on the Hindu tradition from the fourth century onward, Evola focuses on the perilous practices of the Tantric school known as Vamachara – the “Way of the Left Hand” – which uses human passions and the power of Nature to conquer the world of the senses. During the current c ycle of dissolution and decadence, known in India as Kali Yuga, the spiritual aspirant can no longer dismiss the physical world as mere illusion but must grapple with – and ultimately transform – the powerful and often destructive forces with which we live. Evola draws from original texts to describe methods of self-mastery, including the awakening of the serpent power, initiatory sexual magic, and evoking the mantras of power.